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<title>Allomorph</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Allomorph</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the concept in linguistics. For the concept in geology, see <a href="Allomorph_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Allomorph (geology)">Allomorph (geology)</a>.</div>

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<p>In <a href="Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, an <b>allomorph</b> is a variant <a href="Phonetic_form" title="Phonetic form">phonetic form</a> of a <a href="Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a>, or in other words, a unit of meaning that varies in sound and spelling without changing the meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>allomorph</i> describes the realization of phonological variations for a specific morpheme.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The different allomorphs that a morpheme can become are governed by <a href="Morphophonemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Morphophonemic">morphophonemic</a> rules. These phonological rules determine what phonetic form, or specific <a href="Pronunciation" title="Pronunciation">pronunciation</a>, a morpheme will take based on the phonological or morphological context in which it appears.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Allomorphy in English involves the variation of morphemes in their phonetic form based on specific linguistic contexts, a phenomenon governed by morphophonemic rules. For instance, the past tense morpheme "-ed" can manifest in different forms—[-əd], [-t], or [-d]—depending on the final sound of the verb stem. This variability is not random but follows predictable patterns, such as the insertion of a schwa [ə] or assimilation to the voicing of the preceding consonant. Similarly, English plural morphemes exhibit three allomorphs: [-s], [-z], and [-əz], with pronunciation determined by the final sound of the noun, whether it be a voiceless consonant, a voiced consonant, or a sibilant. In addition, negative prefixes like "in-" display allomorphy, changing from [ɪn-] to [ɪŋ-] or [ɪm-] depending on the following consonant's place of articulation. This systematic variation reflects the intricate relationship between phonology and morphology in language, with allomorph selection being guided by both phonological environment and morphological constraints (Pak, 2016; Stanton, 2022).

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_English">In English</h2></div>

<p><a href="English_language" title="English language">English</a> has several morphemes that vary in sound but not in meaning, such as past tense morphemes, plural morphemes, and negative morphemes.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Past_tense_allomorphs">Past tense allomorphs</h3></div>

<p>For example, an English past tense morpheme is <i>-ed</i>, which occurs in several allomorphs depending on its phonological environment by assimilating the voicing of the previous segment or the <a href="Epenthesis" title="Epenthesis">insertion</a> of a <a href="Schwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Schwa">schwa</a> after an <a href="Alveolar_stop" title="Alveolar stop">alveolar stop</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A possible set of assimilations is:

</p>

<ul><li>as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[-əd]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[-ɪd]</span> in verbs whose <a href="Word_stem" title="Word stem">stem</a> ends with the alveolar stops <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d]</span>, such as 'hunted' <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[hʌntɪd]</span> or 'banded' <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[bændɪd]</span></li>

<li>as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[-t]</span> in verbs whose stem ends with voiceless phonemes other than <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span>, such as 'fished' <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[fɪʃt]</span></li>

<li>as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[-d]</span> in verbs whose stem ends with voiced phonemes other than <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d]</span>, such as 'buzzed' <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[bʌzd]</span></li></ul>

<p>The "other than" restrictions above are typical for allomorphy. If the allomorphy conditions are ordered from most restrictive (in this case, after an alveolar stop) to least restrictive, the first matching case usually has precedence. Thus, the above conditions could be rewritten as follows:

</p>

<li>as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[-t]</span> when the stem ends with voiceless phonemes</li>

<li>as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[-d]</span> elsewhere</li></ul>

<p>The <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[-t]</span> allomorph does not appear after stem-final <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> although the latter is voiceless, which is then explained by <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[-əd]</span> appearing in that environment, together with the fact that the environments are ordered (that is, listed in order of priority). Likewise, the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[-d]</span> allomorph does not appear after stem-final <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d]</span> because the earlier clause for the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-əd/</span> allomorph has priority. The <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-d/</span> allomorph does not appear after stem-final voiceless phoneme because the preceding clause for the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[-t]</span> comes first.

</p><p>Irregular past tense forms, such as "broke" or "was/were," can be seen as still more specific cases since they are confined to certain lexical items, such as the verb "break," which take priority over the general cases listed above.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plural_allomorphs">Plural allomorphs</h3></div>

<p>The plural morpheme for regular nouns in English is typically realized by adding an <i>-s</i> or <i>-es</i> to the end of the noun. However, the plural morpheme actually has three different allomorphs: [-s], [-z], and [-əz]. The specific pronunciation that a plural morpheme takes on is determined by a set of morphological rules such as the following:<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li>assume that the basic form of the plural morpheme, /-z/, is [-z] ("bags" /bægz/)</li>

<li>the morpheme /-z/ becomes [-əz] by inserting an [ə] before [-z] when a noun ends in a <a href="Sibilant" title="Sibilant">sibilant</a> ("buses" /bʌsəz/)</li>

<li>change the morpheme /-z/ to a voiceless [-s] when a noun ends in a <a href="Voiceless_sound" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless sound">voiceless sound</a> ("caps" /kæps/)</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Negative_allomorphs">Negative allomorphs</h3></div>

<p>In English, the negative prefix <i>in-</i> has three allomorphs: [ɪn-], [ɪŋ-], and [ɪm-]. The phonetic form that the negative morpheme /ɪn-/ uses is determined by a set of morphological rules; for example:<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li>the negative morpheme /ɪn-/ becomes [ɪn-] when preceding an <a href="Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">alveolar consonant</a> ("intolerant"/ɪnˈtɔlərənt/)</li>

<li>the morpheme /ɪn-/ becomes [ɪŋ-] before a <a href="Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">velar consonant</a> ("incongruous" /ɪŋˈkɔŋgruəs/)</li>

<li>the morpheme /ɪn-/ becomes [ɪm-] before a <a href="Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">bilabial consonant</a> ("improper" /ɪmˈprɔpər/)</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_Sámi_languages">In Sámi languages</h2></div>

<p>The <a href="S%C3%A1mi_languages" title="Sámi languages">Sámi languages</a> have a <a href="Trochaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Trochaic">trochaic</a> pattern of alternating <a href="Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">stressed</a> and unstressed syllables. The vowels and consonants that are allowed in an unstressed <a href="Syllable" title="Syllable">syllable</a> differ from those that are allowed in a stressed syllable. Consequently, every suffix and inflectional ending has two forms, and the form that is used depends on the stress pattern of the word to which it is attached. For example, <a href="Northern_S%C3%A1mi" title="Northern Sámi">Northern Sámi</a> has the <a href="Causative" title="Causative">causative</a> verb suffix -<span title="Northern Sami-language text"><i lang="se">hit/-ahttit</i></span> in which <i>-<span title="Northern Sami-language text"><i lang="se">hit</i></span></i> is selected when it would be the third syllable (and the preceding verb has two syllables), and <i>-<span title="Northern Sami-language text"><i lang="se">ahttit</i></span></i> is selected when it would be the third and the fourth syllables (and the preceding verb has three syllables):

</p>

<ul><li><i><span title="Northern Sami-language text"><i lang="se">goar·ru<b>t</b></i></span></i> has two syllables and so when suffixed, the result is <i><span title="Northern Sami-language text"><i lang="se">goa·ru<b>·hit</b></i></span></i>.</li>

<li><span title="Northern Sami-language text"><i lang="se">na·nos·m<b>it</b></i></span> has three syllables and so when suffixed, the result is <i><span title="Northern Sami-language text"><i lang="se">na·nos·m<b>ah·ttit</b></i></span></i>.</li></ul>

<p>The same applies to inflectional patterns in the Sami languages as well, which are divided into even stems and odd stems.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Stem_allomorphy">Stem allomorphy</h2></div>

<p>Allomorphy can also exist in stems or <a href="Root_(linguistics)" title="Root (linguistics)">roots</a>, as in <a href="Classical_Sanskrit" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Sanskrit">Classical Sanskrit</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-:02_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<caption><b>Vāk</b> (voice)

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<th><b>Singular</b>

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<th><b>Plural</b>

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<th><a href="Nominative" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative">Nominative</a>

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<th><a href="Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">Genitive</a>

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<th><a href="Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">Instrumental</a>

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<th><a href="Locative_case" title="Locative case">Locative</a>

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<p>There are three allomorphs of the stem, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/vaːk/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/vaːt͡ʃ/</span>, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/vaːɡ/</span>, which are conditioned by the particular case-marking suffixes.

</p><p>The form of the stem <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/vaːk/</span>, found in the nominative singular and locative plural, is the etymological form of the morpheme. Pre-Indic palatalization of <a href="Velars" class="mw-redirect" title="Velars">velars</a> resulted in the variant form <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/vaːt͡ʃ/</span>, which was initially phonologically conditioned. The conditioning can still be seen in the locative singular form, for which the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t͡ʃ/</span> is followed by the high front vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span>.

</p><p>However, the subsequent merging of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span> into <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> made the alternation unpredictable on phonetic grounds in the genitive case (both singular and plural) as well as the nominative plural and the instrumental singular. Thus, allomorphy was no longer directly relatable to phonological processes.

</p><p>Phonological conditioning also accounts for the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/vaːɡ/</span> form in the instrumental plural, in which the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡ/</span> assimilates in voicing to the following <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/bʱ/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>The term was originally used to describe variations in chemical structure. It was first applied to language (in writing) in 1948, by Fatih Şat and Sibel Merve in Language XXIV.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Null_allomorph" title="Null allomorph">Null allomorph</a></li>

<li><a href="Alternation_(linguistics)" title="Alternation (linguistics)">Alternation (linguistics)</a></li>

<li><a href="Allophone" title="Allophone">Allophone</a></li>

<li><a href="Consonant_mutation" title="Consonant mutation">Consonant mutation</a></li>

<li><a href="Grassmann's_law" title="Grassmann's law">Grassmann's law</a></li>

<li><a href="Suppletion" title="Suppletion">Suppletion</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFTarni2019" class="citation book cs1">Tarni, Prasad (2019-07-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J7eoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA69"><i>A Course in Linguistics, Third Edition</i></a>. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-93-88028-96-7</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:1-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFromkinRodmanHyams2018" class="citation book cs1">Fromkin, Victoria; Rodman, Robert; Hyams, Nina (2018). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontola0000from_b4i4"><i>An Introduction to Language</i></a></span> (11th ed.). <a href="Cengage_Learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Cengage Learning">Cengage Learning</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">218–</span>220. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781337559577</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMoravcsik2019" class="citation journal cs1">Moravcsik, Edith (2019-11-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fopli-2019-0020">"Accounting for Variation in Language"</a>. <i>Open Linguistics</i>. <b>5</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">369–</span>382. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fopli-2019-0020">10.1515/opli-2019-0020</a></span>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:208141142">208141142</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJeffersLehiste1982" class="citation book cs1">Jeffers, Robert; Lehiste, Ilse (1982). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/principlesmethod0000jeff"><i>Principles and Methods for Historical Linguistics</i></a></span>. <a href="The_MIT_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="The MIT Press">The MIT Press</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780262600118</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFromkinRodmanHyams2003" class="citation book cs1">Fromkin, Victoria; Rodman, Robert; Hyams, Nina (2003). <i>An Introduction to Language</i> (9th ed.). <a href="Wadsworth_Cengage_Learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Wadsworth Cengage Learning">Wadsworth Cengage Learning</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">268–</span>272. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781439082416</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oxford English Dictionary Online: Entry 50006103. Accessed: 2006-09-05</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1124301#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata679" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1124301#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata679" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Allomorph"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4141975-3">Germany</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/a12e35ea-12e7-4f7e-900d-c712edcad2e1">Yale LUX</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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